War Crimes In Wwii Japan History Essay

War Crimes In Wwii Japan History Essay This paper addresses issues related to war crimes committed by the Japanese during World War Two (1942-45). It begins with a brief history, background information, and continues with an analysis of the Japanese wartime mentality that includes selected events in depth. The subsequent sections of this paper identify and describe what war crimes are, and elaborate on two vital examples during World War II. In doing so, this paper will analyze the issue of war crimes and its impact and denial as a feature within Japanese politics. The militaristic tradition feudalistic structure which concentrated power in the hands of the daimyo establishes the historical precedence that lead to the development of Japanese wartime mentality. At the top of the class structure was the Samurai Warrior Class. The Samurai were about 10% of the population and they commanded respect. The Samurai answered only to their leader the Daimyo which were the landed aristocratic leaders. Samurai as top of the class structure and in many ways sanctioned them to do anything as long as it was for and in service for their masters/warlords The tactical and political demands of the Japanese militarists outdated the strict moral and ethical essentials of the Code of Bushido. Firstly, the term Bushido is a concept that includes a large amount of interpretation. Its vital exposing the misleading context of bushido to show that within this flexible doctrine, any action can be interpreted as just or moral as long as it fulfills the end goal. For a law of a doctrine to be corrupt, and illegal action to ensue, the laws must be clearly defined which the code of bushido was not. Secondly, Bushido emphasized obedience above all over aspects of conduct. It was required as long as it serve the motives of the individual, giving them the freedom unrestrictive action which can be seen in the Japanese conduct in WWII making their behaviour part of a continuous pattern of martial culture. As an ideal construct, Bushido emphasized honesty, filial piety, honor, selflessness, loyalty and unquestioning obedience to ones superiors. In fact, according to the Historian Yuki Tanaka, the brutality committed by Japanese soldiers during WWII was an effect of the subordination and the corruption of the Code of Bushido. The second example would be Nationalism. It was in this environment that the Tokugawa Shogunate was toppled and the emperor re-empowered during the Meiji Restoration of 1868. It was also in this environment, faced with external dangers and internal instability that the Japanese government became more centralized and the importance of nationalism and patriotism was stressed to the people. Loyalty was transferred from the daimyo and the shogun to the emperor-though the emperor largely remained a figurehead and the real machinations of government were being run by an oligarchy of powerful politicians. In order to develop a deep and abiding sense of nationalism it was necessary to stress what was uniquely Japanese. According to Conroy (1955:828), the program was to be national renovation, purification of the national polity, are turn to the traditional Eastern morality. By reviving traditional Japanese ethics the Meiji government could bring the people together under a set of commonly shared values that were unique to the Japanese. This would help create a national consciousness which is a necessary component of nationalism. This moral revival largely focused on stressing traditional Shinto and Confucian ethical precepts. There was another source of ethical values, however, one which centered on the values of loyalty, honor and courage-just the values that the Meiji leaders wanted to instill. This source was Bushido, Jansen points out that the samurai served as ideal ethical types, theoretically committed to service and indifferent to personal danger and gain (2000:101).These were precisely the values that the Meiji leadership wanted to instill in the population. From the abolition of the class structure, this clearly created a tight unification among the inhabitants of Japan and this is what pushed national strength to survive. Looking forward this can be seen as the progression of the us vs. them mind-set that can be found frequently in war. By creating this exaggeration of the virtues of samurai heritage, it intensifies and separates self-image of the Japanese as a virtuous and warrior-like population from everyone else. During World War II, Japanese society was a volatile combination of feudalism and nationalism that concluded in a national acceptance of military rule during the war years. The Japanese armed forces were a highly nationalistic, well established modern fighting force. Their doctrine was the Bushido code of feudal Japan permitted the fighting code of Japans servicemen Stephen van Evera notes that the effects of nationalism depend heavily on the beliefs of nationalist movements, especially their self-images. He also argues that chauvinist mythmaking is a hallmark of nationalism and that self-glorifying myths encourage citizens to contribute to the national community-to pay taxes, join the army, and fight for the nations defense (van Evera, 1994:26-27, 30) Japans movement toward militarism began after the overthrow of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the commencement of the Meiji Restoration in 1868, with Meiji oligarchs adoption of fukoku kyohei, meaning rich country, strong military. The Meiji Oligarchs did show signs of restraint towards expressions of militarism and imperialism in the first portion (decades?) of the Meiji period but this did not mean that they did not agree with the goals of foreign and military expansion. They first focused more on modernization and economic growth to catch up with Western industrial powers before they took any steps to expand Japans influence in foreign matters. Japanese militarism and imperialism progressively developed for five principal reasons. The first reason was Japans desire to be a Western-style imperialist power and the second reason was Japans concerns for its security and safety which played an important roles in the growth of militarism up to the end of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905. The next two reasons, Japans belief in its leadership role for Asia and Japans frequent provocations by Western powers, gave rise to an expansion of militarism and imperialism from 1905 to the 1930s. The final reason, Japans desire to secure its economic interests, rose in importance as Japan entered the decade of the 1930s. The last example is during the Meiji Restoration (1868) it also resulted in the refashioning of old militaristic goals to include expansionist ambitions overseas; such as Japans desire to be a Western-style imperialist power its concerns for its security and safety, its belief in its leadership role for Asia and its desire to secure its economic interests. National survival became tied to imperialism and expansionist ambitions with increased contact with imperialistic Western countries. The island nation became to a point paranoid with Western countries and its influence; from economically and militaristically catching up, unequal treaties that brought them humiliation, to freeing other Asian countries from Western imperialist power. Militaristic tradition, the development of a fiercely nationalistic culture which helped led to the development of Japans leaders imperialistic ambitions pitted the Japanese us against outsiders. The combination of these three historical developments led to the formation of a Japanese mentality where any kind of military action against outsiders was sanctioned as long as it furthered the larger goal of increasing Japanese strength and ensuring the nations survival. This ethnocentric view was not uncommon among imperialist countries and explains the way Japanese (and in fact, imperialist countries) viewed war crimes. Understanding the Japanese mentality towards the war and their nations role in it helps shed light on how war crimes were perceived by the Japanese. As such, I would define war crime in the Japanese eyes during World War II as follows. A war crime is an act of cruelty against ones own people that is neither to the countrys benefit in any form nor sanctioned by ones superior. By approaching the war crime in this context, it is possible to deduce that the Japanese soldiers did not see the acts of cruelty they committed during the war as crimes for they were all for the larger Japanese imperialistic goals and furthermore, committed against outsiders. Japanese troops entered the capital on 13 December 1937 and for six weeks, conducted a campaign of terror, humiliation and brutality known as the murder and rape of Nanking. Civilians and captured military personnel were subjected to looting, rape, torture, decapitation, mass killings and killing practice exercises. From a population of approximately 600,000-700,000 inhabitants in the city before it fell, it is estimated that at least 300,000 were killed and at least 20,000 were raped. Of all the atrocities committed in the Asian territories occupied by Imperial Japan between 1937-1945, the Nanjing Massacre is perhaps the most well-known. As historian Professor Charles S. Maier (Harvard University) has written: Within both Japan and Chinaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the Nanjing Massacre has assumed the somewhat same salience in public memory as the Holocaust in Europe and Americaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. The Japanese armys killing spree at Nanjingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ has become the other emblematic massacre of the Pacific War, and it remains the epitome of the cruelty and aggression that the Japanese military unleashed. The Nanjing rampage seems all the more atrocious in that it involved not what has seemed so horrifying about the Holocaust its bureaucratized planning and mechanized execution but the often gleeful killing of perhaps hundreds of thousands of civilians by individual soldiers using sword and bayonet as well as bullet. The killings were all the more appalling in that they were unnecessary for the military objective, continued after the victory was secured, and apparently involved such joyful or at least indifferent murder. (Bold mine) Brutal killings that seemed to have no meaning after victory was secured killing contests Japanese saw these acts as demonstrations of military prowess which harks back to samurai brutality in the past during the Sengoku era .Japanese did not see outsiders as equals and because of that, not really worthy of compassion or sympathy and treated them as lesser beings. Mentality of Japanese as the superior race with them making light of the lives of outsiders is not unique. This can be seen in Germanys persecution of Jews during WWI or known as the racist dimension of Social Darwinism. The official and extensive enslavement of young women by the imperial government for sexual exploitation stands out as one of the most egregious examples of how women suffer the cruelest blows of war. Historians have estimated that as many as 200,000 civilian women were forcibly conscripted in Japanese-occupied countries between 1931 and 1945 and forced to serve as sexual slaves in Japanese Army brothels. The Imperial Japanese Army assigned these victims the euphemistic term comfort women. The majority of these women were conscripted in China and Korea, but this barbarous practice occurred in every country occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army. Representatives of the Japanese government pressed them into sexual servitude with lies, including promises of education, or simply by snatching them from the streets. Usually taken from their home countries to military brothels elsewhere, they were kept isolated and imprisoned. From China, Korea, SEA and even Japan itself, perhaps the fact that it included even Japanese women makes it even more of a controversial topic to talk about. Also, the 90s saw women coming out to tell of their experiences which kept this crime alive and an important feature of Japanese dealings with the outside world long after the end of WWII. Comfort woman is an example of how different forms of oppression work within a system of war. The oppression faced by the combination of race and gender create a dangerous environment for these women. These two factors worked to dehumanize Japanese women and justify the behaviour of the government. Even the language used to describe this crime is a euphemism. Language is a very powerful tool used by the government to legitimize the rape and enslavement of thousands of women. Taking away their autonomy and reducing Japanese woman to their reproductive organs denies them basic human rights. The system of comfort woman also intersects with another form of oppression class. Comfort woman were woman of the lowest class. Therefore you have a government that is using its most marginalized demographic as a tool during war. Japanese view of women are lesser than men, purpose: to service men thus even enslaved Japanese women as comfort women, needs of the soldiers come before anyone else (harks back to samurai superiority were always the top of the class structure before Meiji period). Although due to its borders the definition of war crime as mentioned above, since it included crimes against their own people as well, comfort women remains an issue that nationalists politicians struggle to reconcile even till today. Notably, this difference in perception over war crimes carries on up till today which leads to the issue of war crimes still being a feature of Japanese politics. The Tokyo War Crimes Trials (1946 1948): Ultimately, victors convicting the losers, outsiders convicting the Japanese. Japanese defendants accused of war crimes were tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, which was established by a charter issued by U.S. Army General Douglas MacArthur. The so-called Tokyo Charter closely followed the Nà ¼rnberg Charter. The trials were conducted in English and Japanese and lasted nearly two years. Of the 25 Japanese defendants (all of whom were convicted), 7 were sentenced to hang, 16 were given life imprisonment, and 2 were sentenced to lesser terms. Except for those who died early of natural causes in prison, none of the imprisoned Japanese war criminals served a life sentence. Instead, by 1958 the remaining prisoners had been either pardoned or paroled. Japans refusal to acknowledge its war guilt and war crimes stands in stark contrast to the willingness of Germany to confront its war crimes. However, it is arguable that Japan has only been able to avoid squarely confronting its war guilt and war crimes because of the active connivance of the United States. In 1948, intensification of the Cold War persuaded the American government that Japan should become an American ally and bulwark against the spread of communism in Asia. This was unlikely to happen if investigation and prosecution of Japanese for war crimes continued. This is what many believe what sparked the Japanese government to refuse to acknowledge Japans military aggression. Many Japanese LDP members of parliament, government officials, academics, and revisionist film makers have aligned themselves with militarists and extreme nationalists in claiming that Japans intervention in China in 1931, 1933, and 1937 was necessary to liberate the Chinese from exploitation by Western colonial interests. Even if political figures do apologize to their neighbours they receive backlash and negative reactions in Japan. When Japans first Socialist Prime Minister, Tomiichi Murayama, was touring South-East Asia in 1995, he apologised for the tremendous damage and suffering caused by Japans colonial rule and aggressionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ in the not too distant past. Murayamas apology did not mention atrocities such as the Nanjing Massacre, and was the closest Japan has ever come to an admission of war guilt and apology for its war crimes. The apology by Murayama was viewed as inadequate in China but caused widespread fury in Japan. Another large issue over the years would be the textbook controversies. In 1962, an officially sponsored seven-volume history of the Pacific War was published. This sanitised history, called Japans Way into the Pacific War, ignored Japans military aggression across East Asia and the western Pacific and the countless atrocities committed by Japans military. From then, textbooks have been censored from statistical data such as the fatality rates, creating false historical information or even downplaying of words and content. Impact on foreign relations even to this day tensions between Japan and its Asian neighbours escalated from time to time. On Wednesday, the 67th anniversary of the end of World War Two, as South Korea and China both told Tokyo to do much more to resolve lingering bitterness over its past military aggression .Despite close economic ties in one of the worlds wealthiest regions, memories of Japans wartime occupation of much of China and colonisation of South Korea run deep in the two countries. Throughout wars there have always been casualties from both sides. The death tolls which include the estimates of all deaths that are either directly or indirectly cause by war, within World War II are the highest. The two most infamous executions by the Japanese military are the Nanjing massacre and the development of comfort women. Through western influence and the Meiji Restoration is what progressed into Japanese nationalism and expansionism. To this day Japans neighbors are bitter towards their history which can be seen through the attitudes of the older generation in Asia, the text book controversies and the constant refusal to accept their war crimes.

Macro and Micro Environmental Factors Essay

There are many other products to choose in the soft drink market include Pepsi Co product , the different is those products are cheaper than Gatorade * In order to attract more customers, Gatorade has improved its product quality and spent lots of money on advertising. -Selling products Gatorade mostly is the imported product so most distributor afraid that they can’t sell Gatorade because of Gatorade price * Gatorade has increased the supplier’s commission. -Publics: The customers in the last 1 year with the developing of VN economic has begun to care about their health lately. Many sport center, fitness club, etc†¦ has been opened in the last 15 years. * The big, potential market for energy beverage drink such as Gatorade to grow. As the result, Pepsi has built up many small, convenient store around those places. * Advertising and promoting trough sport events. Gatorade is also focus on McKinsey’s structure include: structure, strategy, and skill, staff, and style, system and share value. + Style: Gatorade is one of the company which have style. It helps Pepsi too adopted to changes so it can reach and fix it quickly. + Strategy: Improve the sport drink market in VN * Improve both product quality and price * Has an production line in VN with cheap resources and good materials but still guarantee the quality. So as to compete, Pepsi has advertised its product a lot and had various surveys to research what their consumer’s needs and produce healthy products are. Macro environment -Political : VN has been the 150th member of WTO so it has attracted many big investors all over the world. The government has supported many enterprises and business investments by changing to the international law, this has led to more active business action which the consumers can approach to the local products and costumers can have more choice within all the global products too. * Pepsi Co considered about importing more Gatorade in each trip to reduce to price and earn more revenue or adding no more product. -Technology: Consumers now mostly pay all the products by credit, master or visa card which allows company to narrow the distance between producer and buyer. > It invests not only in one country but open up many branches all over the world and there must be decision whether to use capital for hiring staff, advertising the product, etc†¦. or not – Economics environment: The average income of a Vietnamese is affected by inflation and economic ciao. So, the number of selling product s are also decrease. Pepsi has made a decision to having more and more promotion, and held lots of social event to refresh the consumer’s comments about the company to set up a good new one. Environment: The environment issue in VN is becoming more and more serious. This problem is can’t be avoid in developing country. It’s the result of industrialize and modernization. To reduce pollution government has set up a law in order to protect the environment. Even though, Vietnamese’s awareness isn’t as high as other country but the law has been enforced a great punishment to those who pollute the environment. * This make Pepsi spent lots of money in buy new green-facilities , and providing the idea of protecting the nvironment to not only their staff but also their customers. Both help to protect the environment and stil l promote Pepsi good fame. Bargaining Power of Supplier: the soft drink market in VN and foreign isn’t the exclusive market. Bargaining Power of Consumers: * Industries facing powerful buyers: Distributors have the power to negotiate with the company on price, product quality, as well as marketing policy. * Industries facing weak buyers : have little impact on the market, Each buyers will buy the products with different purposes. Some bought to sell, others for political purpose . Numbers of require products is too much for the producer to still keeping it product quality. So that, the pressure is heavy too Threat of entry: Gatorade has many competitors. Competition from substitutes: Gatorade should be change product when customer want and need, also price and quality. Competition between firms: Gatorade have many competitor in Vietnam. Gatorade should always pay attention to your competitors.

A danger of a single story Essay

Literature is something that matters. It has the power to change and shape our minds and opinions. It has the power to change the perception of the world around us and to boost our imagination. Take us far away from the reality to the world of illusions and let our minds flourished with imagination. One might think how amazing it is, but fiction as it is here today may often matter much more than it is meant to. TED is a non-profit global community whose mission is to spread ideas usually in the form of short talks which last no more than 18 minutes. TED began in 1984 as a conference, and today covers wide range of topics – from science to philosophy to global issues – in more than 100 languages welcoming people from every discipline and culture who seek a deeper understanding of the world. Both of the presenters whose ideas I will mention are novelists and story tellers. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie is a Nigerian anglophone writer who succeeded in attracting a new generation of readers to African literature. In her novels, she is inspired by the history of her nation and its tragedies that are forgotten by recent generation of westerners. Elif Shafak is a Turkish novelist born in Strasbourg, France who is the most widely read female writer in Turkey. Her books have been translated into more than twenty-five languages. Ch. N. Adichie in her talk warns that if we hear only a single story about another person or country, we risk a critical misunderstanding. Things are not usually just black and white and we have to make every effort to open our minds and explore what is real. Elif Shafak talks about the danger into which writers from different cultures are put at; the pressure-that-makes-them-feel-as-a-representatives-of-their-cultures. She makes a strong division between fiction and reality – fiction and daily politics. Although, both of the writers are of non-western origin which to some extend make them quite similar in terms of cultural stereotypes, it  seems that they do not share the same view of function of a story in our lives. While talking about the cultural and social background of these two writers, there are many things in which they differ, although their life journeys have many in common. Ch. N. Adichie was born in Nigeria, Africa. She grew up in a conventional middle-class family, her father was a professor and her mother was an administrator. She had a very happy childhood in a very close-knit family. However, a kind of political fear invaded their lives on the place they live. However, Chimamanda was a happy child who was writing stories about white people, just like those who she was reading about in books. On the other hand, Elif Shafak; although, she has Turkish parents, was born in France, Europe and when her parents got separated she was bringing up by her mother and her grandmother in Turkey. Her position was quite dissimilar to Adichie’ as she was not living in a nuclear family. She grew up in a patriarchal environment where fathers were the heads of households. She was raised as a single child by a single mother, which was; at those times, a bit unusual. Elif Shafak was an introverted child talking to her imaginary friends. She had a vivid imagination and unlike Adichie, she was not inspired by stories that she had read, but she wrote about people she had never seen and things that never really happened. Nevertheless, their writing experience took place at the same time. They both started to write around the age of 7; though, their style was different. Moreover, the life journey of these two women seems to be quite similar. Just like Adichie, Shafak also studied abroad. They have travelled the world and this made these women who they are nowadays. It made them being experienced, open-minded and well-educated,-powerful-women. This leads me to the matter of stereotypes. As I mentioned, both writers have travelled a lot and during their lives they have experienced stereotypes on their own skin. Ch. N. Adichie mentions several personal stories from her life in which she pays attention to the stereotypes. She talks about how her roommate in the USA was surprised that she had learnt speak English so well,  that she had not been raised in poverty, that music which Adichie was listening to was not different in any feature from mainstream one. Chimamanda focuses on African stereotypes that she experienced. As a result, she demonstrates that stereotypes are created by single stories, and the problem with the stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they are incomplete. At the same time, Elif uses her personal experience as well. Like Adichie, she attended a school abroad as well, and she experienced cultural stereotypes. She talks about the clusters based on cultural identity. The school, which she attended, was multicultural. The only problem was that each child was seen as a representative of his or her nation and every time something happened in connection to their nation they were ridiculed and bullied because of it. As Adichie experienced stereotypes concerning Africa, Elif Shafak came across some cultural stereotypes concerning her nationality as well and these were politics, smoking and veil. Doesn’t matter she had never been smoking before, or she had never been raised in a environment where a rule of wearing a veil was obligatory, she was expected to do so because it was a general image of her nation and her culture. In contrast, the notion of power is discussed from different points of view by these two writers. To clarify this, I will put down both of them in sequence. The most significant difference is in context they use. On one hand, Adichie talks about the power as the ability not just to tell the story, but also as the ability to chose which story is being told, how it is told, who tells it; therefore, the ability to make from one story the definite one, the single story. She appeals not that much to writers, but to readers and people in general. She demonstrates how important it is not to see things just black and white; thus, try to open our minds and explore. Without doubt, Elif’s viewpoint to the question of power is quite distinct. It seems to me like the other side of the coin when she; unlike Adichie, analyses the relation between power and writer not power and reader. Shafak puts into relation power with the notion of pressure. She demonstrates how  writers are seen as the representatives of their cultures. In her talk, she manifests how world of politics affects the way stories are being written, reviewed and read. If you are a person with a particular cultural background you are expected to write informative and characteristic stories about your world and to show manifestation of your identity. As an illustration, Elif as a woman from a Muslim world is expected to write stories of Muslim women and preferably, the unhappy stories of unhappy Muslim women just because she happened to be one. And in connection to this, here comes the main distinction between their understanding of power. While Adichie sees a story and fiction as tools for shaping our minds by which we can understand people, nations and things what they really are, Shafak thinks that when stories are seen as more than stories, they lose their magic; in other words, she says fiction is just fiction, not daily politics. In both cases one must admit that thoughts which were brought up were relevant. It doesn’t matter what is your cultural background; what is important it is your personal growth. These two women have stepped over the shadows of their cultural stereotypes. They pointed at a serious problem of nowadays in a context of literature and the credibility of information itselves. They both; however, in a different way, open people’s minds and let us think. And this is when a story matters.

Roman Empire Innovations Essay - 1583 Words

Romans found new societal and technological innovations which led their empire to be a sustainable society. These innovations helped the Roman Empire to be successful and peaceful. They aided in making everyone content, including the conquered and prevented wars from breaking out within the empire. Technological innovations helped the citizens live a comfortable and healthy life. New innovations included new beneficial laws. The last king of Rome was Tarquin the Proud. A harsh tyrant, he was driven from power in 509 B.C. The Romans declared they would never again be ruled by a king. Instead, they established a republic the Latin phrase res publica, which means â€Å"public affairs.† A republic is a form of government in which power rests†¦show more content†¦They claimed that their ancestry gave them authority to make laws for Rome. The plebeians were citizens of Rome with the right to vote. However, they were barred by law from holding the most important government positions. In time, Rome’s leaders allowed the plebeians to form their own assembly and elect representatives called tribunes. Tribunes protected the rights of the plebeians from unfair acts of patrician officials. (page 156) It can be seen that the problem was that patrician were lording power over the plebeians. Electing tribunes to protect the rights of a plebeian was important because it helped the empire be fair and equal to all the citizens which helped everyone be content. This prevented violent demonstrations from breaking out. â€Å"With laws unwritten, patrician officials often interpreted the law to suit themselves. In 451 B.C., a group of ten officials began writing down Rome’s laws. The laws were carved on twelve tablets, or tables, and hung in the Forum. They became the basis for later Roman law. The Twelve Tables established the idea that all free citizens had a right to the protection of the law.† (page 156) Having laws made but unwritten caused the patricians to change it slightly so that it suited them. The innovation, which was to carve it in tablets and hang it in the Forum where everyoneShow MoreRelatedAugustus Of The Roman Empire1365 Words   |  6 PagesDictator of the Roman Empire adopted his grandnephew, also known as Octavian in his will. After Cesar was assassinated Augustus wanted nothing more than to â€Å"claim his inheritance and to avenge his slain â€Å"father†(ColeSymes).† This vengeance left constant warfare that came to an end after the victory at Actium. At this point in time Rome was no longer a republic. 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